Definition of Discourse Analysis

A. Definition of Discourse

·     (Crystal 1992:25) "Discourse: a continuous stretch of (especially spoken) language larger than a sentence, often constituting a coherent unit such as a sermon, argument, joke, or narrative".  

 

·     Dakowska, being aware of differences between kinds of discourses indicates the unity of communicative intentions as a vital element of each of them. Consequently she suggests using terms ‚text’ and ‚discourse’ almost interchangeably betokening the former refers to the linguistic product, while the latter implies the entire dynamics of the processes (Dakowska 2001:81). 

 

 ·       According to Cook (1990:7) novels, as well as short conversations or groans might be equally rightfully named discourses.

.     Discourse is written as well as spoken: every utterance assuming the a speaker Foucault, 1972: 80) The specification with the term is that ‘discourse must be used with its social purpose’ this is the main specification of discourse.

  

B. Definition Analysis

·       Discourse analysis does not presuppose a bias towards the study of either spoken or written language. In fact, the monolithic character of the categories of speech and writing has been widely challenged,especially as the gaze of analysts turns to multi-media texts and practices on the Internet.

      Stef Slembrouck (DA web page)

 

·       Analysis means to break something up into parts,pieces, reason, or steps and look how those peces are related  to each other.

 

      ·      While Nunan (1993), states the definition of discourse linguistics as the      study of how stretches of language used in communication assume meaning, purpose and unity for their users: the quality of coherence (an interaction of text with given participants/context). 

 

C.    Definition of  Discourse Analysis

·       Brown and Yule (1983) ) observe that DA examines  “how addressers construct  linguistic messages for addressees and how addressees work on linguistic messages in order to interpret them.” 

 

·       Stubbs (1983:1) describes Discourse Analysis thus: The term discourse analysis is very ambiguous. It refers mainly to the linguistic analysis of naturally occurring connected speech or written discourse. Roughly speaking, it refers to attempts to study the organization of language above the sentence or above the clause, and therefore to study larger linguistic units, such as conversational exchanges or written texts. It follows that discourse analysis is also concerned with language use in social contexts, and in particular with interaction or dialogue between speakers. 

·       Discourse analysis does not presuppose a bias towards the study of either spoken or written language. In fact, the monolithic character of the categories of speech and writing has been widely challenged,especially as the gaze of analysts turns to multi-media texts and practices on the Internet. Stef Slembrouck (DA web page)

 

·       Discourse analysis is sometimes defined as the analysis of language 'beyond the sentence'. This contrasts with types of analysis more typical of modern linguistics, which are chiefly concerned with the study of grammar: the study of smaller bits of language, such as sounds (phonetics and phonology), parts of words (morphology), meaning (semantics), and the order of words in sentences (syntax). Discourse analysts study larger chunks of as they flow together. 

      Deborah Tannen (From Linguistic Society of America web 

 

·       While Nunan (1993), states the definition of discourse linguistics as the study of how stretches of language used in communication assume meaning, purpose and unity for their users: the quality of coherence (an interaction of text with given participants/context).

 

     So, we can conclude that Discourse Analysis is the study language and the deeper meaning in ways language is used. People use various ways of communication not only by verbal conversations but also letters, e-mail, and even body language. The object of discourse analysis is all these kinds of communication.The main concerns of discourse analysis as how speakers take and relinquish the role of speaker, how social roles affect discourse options in terms of who speaks when and what they can talk about, how non-verbal signaling works and how the actual form of utterances is conditioned by the social relationship between the participants. Discourse analysis is focused on the relationship between a speaker and a listener and the context of situation.

 

 

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Video Semantics

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Needs Analysis (ESP)

NEEDS ANALYSIS

(Module of Economic Students)

Submitted as One of Assignments of ESP Course

Taught by Indah Muzdalifah, M.Pd

 

By

Kristina Dayanti

(1488203029)

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND TEACHERS TRAINING

UNIVERSITY OF LANCANG KUNING

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Idioms

An idiom is a word or phrase which means something different from its literal meaning. Idioms are common phrases or terms whose meaning is not real, but can be understood by their popular use.

Because idioms can mean something different from what the words mean it is difficult for someone not very good at speaking the language to use them properly. Some idioms are only used by some groups of people or at certain times. The idiom shape up or ship out, which is like saying improve your behavior or leave if you don't, might be said by an employer or supervisor to an employee, but not to other people.

Idioms are not the same thing as slang. Idioms are made of normal words that have a special meaning known by almost everyone. Slang is usually special words that are known only by a particular group of people.

To learn a language a person needs to learn the words in that language, and how and when to use them. But people also need to learn idioms separately because certain words together or at certain times can have different meanings. In order to understand an idiom, one sometimes needs to know the culture the idiom comes from.

The Example of Idioms: 

1. Break a leg (A way to wish someone good luck)
2. To live it up (To enjoy life, to live widely)
3. To kick the bucket (To die)
4. Shape up or ship out (Used to tell someone that they should leave if they don't improve their behavior or performance)
5. To shed crocodile tears (To cry about something but without actually caring)
6. Wild goose chase (A useless journey or pursuit)
7. There's no room to swing a cat (There is not a lot of space)
8. To pay through the nose (To pay a lot of money, more than is normal)
9. To bark up the wrong tree (To choose the wrong course of action)
10. To spill the beans (To tell a secret)
11. It's raining cats and dogs (It's raining heavily)
12. To get into hot water (To get into trouble)
13. To be chicken-hearted (To be scared)
14. Top dog (Leader)
15. To smell a rat (To think that something is wrong)
16. To chicken out (Not doing an activity because of fear)
17. To give up (To quit)
18. To give up on (To stop believing in something or someone)
19. I could eat a horse (To be very hungry)
20. To be on top of the world  (To be really happy)

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Proverb

 

English and American proverbs are almost second nature when delivered. The origins are quite often little known, yet the expressions are popular. Ethnic proverbs, on the other hand, may be a little deeper to digest, and require non-natives of the proverb’s country of origin, to think about the meaning in order to better understand how it applies to their lives.

What is a proverb?
A proverb is most often a phrase or saying that gives advice in an obscure way. The phrase usually has an allegorical type of message behind that when first heard may seem a little odd. Usually a proverb is very well known because of its popular use in colloquial language.

Role of Proverbs in Society
 Proverbs play many roles in society. The first, possibly, most common role that a proverb plays is to educate. Most often tossed around as expert advice in conversation, the innate role to educate people on what might happen if they do something.

Think of a proverb as a little tidbit of wisdom that just about everyone no matter where they are from can offer. There is a proverb for just about every circumstance, and proverbs can be applied to any situation.

English and American proverbs are almost second nature when delivered. The origins are quite often little known, yet the expressions are popular. Ethnic proverbs, on the other hand, may be a little deeper to digest, and require non-natives of the proverb’s country of origin, to think about the meaning in order to better understand how it applies to their lives.

 English Proverbs

Some examples of English proverbs include:

1. Actions speaks louder than word.

Meaning: What you do is more important than what you say.

Example: Don't just tell me you're going to change. Do it! Actions speak louder than word.

2. All good things must come to an end.

Meaning: Everything ends; good times don't last forever.

Example: I wish this vacation would go on forever. It's too bad that all good things must come to an end.

3. A picture is worth a thousand words.

Meaning: An image can tell a story better than word.

Example: I wasn't sure that he loved her, but then I saw them hugging at their airport. A picture is  worth a thousand words.

4. A watched pot never boils. 

Meaning: If something takes time to do, it doesn't help to constantly check on it. You just have to give it time.

Example: I know you think he's going to be a great guitar player one day, but stop criticizing him so much. He just started taking lesson two weeks ago! A watched pot never boils.

5. Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.

Meaning: what is "beautiful" is different for each person.

Example: I think their house is ugly, but they seem to like it. Beauty is in the eye of beholder. 

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Homonyms, Homophones, and Homographs

The words homonym, homophone, and homograph are grammatical terms that are easy to confuse with one another because their meanings are all closely related, so let’s go through each one of them and see what the differences are.

• A homograph is a word that has the same spelling as another word but has a different sound and a different meaning.

Examples:

*lead (to go in front of) / lead (a metal)
*wind (to follow a course that is not straight) / wind (a gust of air)
*bass (low, deep sound) / bass (a type of fish)

• A homophone is a word that has the same sound as another word but is spelled differently and has a different meaning.

Examples:

to / two / too
there / their / they're
pray / prey

•  A homonym is one of a group of words that share the same pronunciation but have different meanings, whether spelled the same or not.

Examples:

A further example of a homonym, which is both a homophone and a homograph, is fluke. Fluke can mean:

1. A fish, and a flatworm.
2. The end parts of an anchor.
3. The fins on a whale's tail.
4. A stroke of luck.

 These meanings represent at least three etymologically separate lexemes, but share the one form, fluke. Similarly, a river bank, a savings bank, a bank of switches, and a bank shot in pool share a common spelling and pronunciation, but differ in meaning.

The words bow and bough are examples where there are two meanings associated with a single pronunciation and spelling (the weapon and the knot); two meanings with two different pronunciations (the knot and the act of bending at the waist), and two distinct meanings sharing the same sound but different spellings (bow, the act of bending at the waist, and bough, the branch of a tree). 

In addition, it has several related but distinct meanings: a bent line is sometimes called a 'bowed' line, reflecting its similarity to the weapon. Even according to the most restrictive definitions, various pairs of sounds and meanings of bow, Bow and bough are homonyms, homographs, homophones, heteronyms, heterographs, capitonyms and are polysemous.

 

  

 

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